Immigrants Aboard Ship
Initially, regulation of immigration into America fell solely under the purview of individual states, (Yew, 1980) but with rising numbers of immigrants throughout the mid-1800s, states were unable or unwilling to provide proper oversight (Yans-McLaughlin & Lightman, 1997). After the Supreme Court declared the various state laws on immigration unconstitutional in 1876 immigration became a matter of national policy (Yans-McLaughlin & Lightman, 1997) and the Federal government finally weighed in with its first general immigration law in 1882 (Garis, 1928). "The immigration policies (and) practices at Ellis Island grew out of the progressive ideas of the time, which saw government as having important, legitimate interests in protecting society against certain evils and abuses" (Yans-McLaughlin & Lightman, 1997). The federal government was also responding to widespread public reaction against the ever increasing influx of foreign workers into the American labor market and the impact on wages and working conditions (Benton, 1985). Americans were realizing that while the country's continuous industrial expansion brought prosperity, it also brought overcrowding, disease, city slums, and an unexpected economic downturn (Birn, 1997). Another driving force behind the new laws became the exclusion of people seen as unfit to enter the country; those deemed unacceptable by virtue of mental or physical defects; which at the time included criminals and those of immoral character which were both conditions thought to be closely related to mental defect (Baynton, 2005).
The act of 1882 specifically prohibited entry to lunatics, idiots, or any person unable to take care of themselves without becoming a public charge (Baynton, 2005). The subsequent Act of 1891 replaced the phrase "unable to take care of himself or herself without becoming a public charge," with any person "likely to become a public charge" (Baynton, 2005). The Act of 1891 resulted in large part due to a new push by many business leaders, charitable organization and certain organized labor groups to restrict the previously unfettered influx of immigrants (Birn, 1997). In addition to the concern over the introduction to America of harmful bacteria or contagious diseases, lawmakers were concerned over the economic and social implications resulting from illness or physical impairments which could possibly lead to the disabled individual's dependence on public assistance (Kraut, 1988). Concern was voiced not only that such individuals would be incapable of working or succeeding in America, but that they might pass along their inferior qualities to offspring, thereby damaging the hearty American stock (Baynton, 2005; Birn, 1997).
It was this 1891 law which mandated the medical inspection of immigrants seeking entry to America in order to weed out the expanded classes of excluded immigrants (Yew, 1980). These inspections were to be conducted by physicians of the U.S. Marine Hospital Service, which eventually became the U.S. Public Health Service (Birn, 1997). The 1891 Act also created the Bureau of Immigration to oversee the federal administration of immigration policy (Birn, 1997). Additional laws enacted in 1893 refined the restrictive process by requiring the quarantine of ships carrying passengers with contagious or infectious diseases, and detailing the instructions for disinfection of immigrants’ clothing and personal belongings (Benton, 1985). One of the 1893 laws also instituted the requirement that steamships provide immigration officials with detailed lists of passengers upon landing (Benton, 1985). These lists became the manifests used to interview and register the immigrants as they came through Ellis Island (Benton, 1985).
Over the next several years, the federal government continued enacting more restrictive laws which gave greater interpretive leeway to the medical inspectors. By 1907 the law required a medical certificate be issued for anyone judged "mentally or physically defective, such mental or physical defect being of a nature which may affect the ability of such alien to earn a living" (Baynton, 2005, p.33). The definition of what constituted a mental defect was continually expanded, as were the rules governing exclusion of an immigrant for a physical disability (Baynton, 2005). Physical defects which could exclude an immigrant included arthritis, hernia, heart disease, varicose veins and flat feet (Baynton, 2005). The Commission General of Immigration conceded that the main objective of these laws was to exclude "morally, mentally, and physically deficient" applicants from the country (Baynton, 2005, p.34).
The government sought to exclude those immigrants who would not be able to earn their way and might turn to crime to survive, or become a public charge dependent on charity (Birn, 1997). This action was supported by states such as New York, which by the end of the 19th century was spending $20 million annually for the care of paupers and the insane (Benton, 1985; Garis 1928). The intent to exclude those persons incapable of making a living resulted in the addition of "poor physique" as a diagnosis used to exclude immigrants (Birn, 1997). The assumption was that frail immigrants who were "generally deficient in muscular development" would likely become public charges and should therefore be denied entry to the country (Baynton, 2005, p. 35).
The act of 1882 specifically prohibited entry to lunatics, idiots, or any person unable to take care of themselves without becoming a public charge (Baynton, 2005). The subsequent Act of 1891 replaced the phrase "unable to take care of himself or herself without becoming a public charge," with any person "likely to become a public charge" (Baynton, 2005). The Act of 1891 resulted in large part due to a new push by many business leaders, charitable organization and certain organized labor groups to restrict the previously unfettered influx of immigrants (Birn, 1997). In addition to the concern over the introduction to America of harmful bacteria or contagious diseases, lawmakers were concerned over the economic and social implications resulting from illness or physical impairments which could possibly lead to the disabled individual's dependence on public assistance (Kraut, 1988). Concern was voiced not only that such individuals would be incapable of working or succeeding in America, but that they might pass along their inferior qualities to offspring, thereby damaging the hearty American stock (Baynton, 2005; Birn, 1997).
It was this 1891 law which mandated the medical inspection of immigrants seeking entry to America in order to weed out the expanded classes of excluded immigrants (Yew, 1980). These inspections were to be conducted by physicians of the U.S. Marine Hospital Service, which eventually became the U.S. Public Health Service (Birn, 1997). The 1891 Act also created the Bureau of Immigration to oversee the federal administration of immigration policy (Birn, 1997). Additional laws enacted in 1893 refined the restrictive process by requiring the quarantine of ships carrying passengers with contagious or infectious diseases, and detailing the instructions for disinfection of immigrants’ clothing and personal belongings (Benton, 1985). One of the 1893 laws also instituted the requirement that steamships provide immigration officials with detailed lists of passengers upon landing (Benton, 1985). These lists became the manifests used to interview and register the immigrants as they came through Ellis Island (Benton, 1985).
Over the next several years, the federal government continued enacting more restrictive laws which gave greater interpretive leeway to the medical inspectors. By 1907 the law required a medical certificate be issued for anyone judged "mentally or physically defective, such mental or physical defect being of a nature which may affect the ability of such alien to earn a living" (Baynton, 2005, p.33). The definition of what constituted a mental defect was continually expanded, as were the rules governing exclusion of an immigrant for a physical disability (Baynton, 2005). Physical defects which could exclude an immigrant included arthritis, hernia, heart disease, varicose veins and flat feet (Baynton, 2005). The Commission General of Immigration conceded that the main objective of these laws was to exclude "morally, mentally, and physically deficient" applicants from the country (Baynton, 2005, p.34).
The government sought to exclude those immigrants who would not be able to earn their way and might turn to crime to survive, or become a public charge dependent on charity (Birn, 1997). This action was supported by states such as New York, which by the end of the 19th century was spending $20 million annually for the care of paupers and the insane (Benton, 1985; Garis 1928). The intent to exclude those persons incapable of making a living resulted in the addition of "poor physique" as a diagnosis used to exclude immigrants (Birn, 1997). The assumption was that frail immigrants who were "generally deficient in muscular development" would likely become public charges and should therefore be denied entry to the country (Baynton, 2005, p. 35).